Philosophy and Religion / Satapatha Brahmana

The Satapatha Brahmana: Sixth Kânda, Sixth Adhyâya

The Dîkshâ, or initiation.

First Brâhmana

1. Many¹ are the oblations, in the building of the fire-altar, as well as at any other (special ceremony) than the building of the fire-altar. For there are supernumerary rites,--supernumerary are those which are (performed) over and above another rite: of these² are the building of the altar (Agnikityâ), the Râgasûya, the Vâgapeya, and the Asvamedha; and because they are over and above the other (normal) rites, therefore they are supernumerary.

2. A cake³ on eleven potsherds to Agni and Vishnu,--that is the initiation (offering) of the (Soma) sacrifice;--one on twelve potsherds to Vaisvânara, and a pap to the Âdityas,--these two belong to Agni.

3. Now were he to prepare only the one for Agni and Vishnu, and not the other two oblations, then only the initiation (offering) of the (Soma) sacrifice would be performed, and not those of Agni (the fire-altar); and were he to prepare only the other two oblations, and not the one to Agni and Vishnu, only the initiation (offering) of Agni would be performed, and not that of the sacrifice.

4. He prepares both that of the sacrifice, and those of Agni, for this rite is both a rite of sacrifice, and a rite of fire: first (comes) that of the sacrifice, and then that of the fire, for the rite of the fire is an accessory rite.

5. Now as regards that (cake) for Agni and Vishnu, its mystic import is the same as what is (implied) in a preparatory ceremony. And the (cake) on twelve potsherds for Vaisvânara is for the obtainment of all the fires, Vaisvânara being all the fires;--it is one of twelve potsherds, for twelve months are a year, and Vaisvânara is the year.

6. And, again, as to why he prepares one for Vaisvânara,--it is because he is about to produce Agni as Vaisvânara (belonging, or dear to, all men): in the initiation offering he first pours him forth as seed, and whatlike the seed is that is poured into the womb, suchlike is (the child) born therefrom; and inasmuch as he now pours forth that (Agni) Vaisvânara as seed, therefore he is born hereafter as Vaisvânara.

7. And why he prepares those two (other) oblations,--Vaisvânara is the ruling power, and that Âditya pap is the people: he thus makes both the ruling power and the people. The Vaisvânara (cake) he prepares first, and having thereby made the ruling power, he makes the people.

8. That (Vaisvânara cake) is one single (oblation), having one single deity: he thus makes the ruling power to be concentrated in one (person), and excellence to be concentrated in one. The other, the pap, has many deities, for the pap is a multiplicity of rite-grains, and those Âdityas are a multiplicity of gods: he thus bestows multiplicity on the people. Thus much as to the deities.

9. Now as regards the self (or body of Agni). The Vaisvânara (cake) is the head, and that Âditya pap is the body: he thus makes both the head and the body. The Vaisvânara (cake) he prepares first; and having thereby made the head, he then makes the body.

10. That (Vaisvânara cake) is one single (oblation), for the head is, as it were, one only; and the other, the pap, has many deities, for that pap is a multiplicity of rice-grains, and this body is a multiplicity of limbs: he thus bestows on the body a multiplicity of limbs.

11. That (pap) is (prepared) on ghee, for the Âdityas are consumers of ghee: he thus gratifies them, each by his own share, by his own liquor. These offerings are (made) silently, for here in the sacrifice there is seed, and silently seed is infused.

12. He then offers the Audgrabhana (libations)⁴, for by the Audgrabhanas (elevatory libations) the gods raised themselves from this world to the heavenly world: and inasmuch as (thereby) they raised themselves (ud-grabh), they are called 'audgrabhana;'--and in like manner does the Sacrificer, by means of the Audgrabhanas, now raise himself from this world to the heavenly world.

13. There are many of these, in the building of the fire-altar as well as at any other (special ceremony): the significance of this has been told. They are of both kinds: (the significance) of this has been told;--first those of the sacrifice, and then those of the fire: (the significance) of this also has been told.

14. He offers five of the sacrifice⁵,--the sacrifice is fivefold: as great as the sacrifice is, as great as is its measure, by so much he thus pours it forth as seed. Seven (libations) of the fire,--the fire(-altar) consists of seven layers⁶; seven seasons are a year, and Agni is the year: as great as Agni is, as great as is his measure, by so much he thus pours him forth as seed. Those two kinds (of libations) amount to twelve,--twelve months are a year, and Agni is the year: as great as Agni is, as great as is his measure, so great does this become.

15. He offers⁷, with (Vâg. S. XI, 66-67), 'The Purpose, Agni, the Impulse, hail!'--from purpose, indeed, this sacred rite originated at first, and he now impels (yokes, uses) it for this rite.

16. 'Mind, Wisdom, Agni, the Impulse, hail!'--from the mind indeed this sacred rite originated at first, and he now impels it for this rite.

17. 'Thought, knowledge, Agni, the Impulse, hail!'--from thought, indeed, this sacred rite originated at first, and he now impels it for this rite.

18. 'The distinction of Speech, Agni, the Impulse, hail!'--from speech, indeed, this sacred rite originated at first, and he now impels it for this rite.

19. 'To Pragâpati, to Manu, hail!'--Mann, forsooth, is Pragâpati, for he thought out (man) all this (universe); and Pragâpati, indeed, of old performed this rite, and he now makes use of him for this rite.

20. 'To Agni Vaisvânara, hail!'--Agni Vaisvânara, doubtless, is the year; and the year, indeed, of old performed this rite; and he now makes use thereof for this rite.

21. He then offers the one to Savitri, for Savitri, indeed, of old performed this rite, and he now makes use of him for this rite,--(Vâg. S. XI, 67; Rik S. V, 50, 1), 'Every mortal would choose the friendship of the divine Guide; every one craves riches, and would have glory for him to prosper, hail!' He who chooses the friendship of the god Savitri, chooses both glory and prosperity; and he who performs this rite, indeed chooses his friendship.

22. Now some offer these Audgrabhana libations into the fire-pan itself, saying, 'These, surely, are offered for (special) objects of desire, and that fire-pan is the Sacrificer's self: we thus secure for the Sacrificer's self all his objects of desire.' Let him not do so; for the fire which is kindled (in the fire-pan) is the essence of the completed sacrifice and of those libations, and when he puts the fire-pan on the fire, after the sacrifice has been completed and the Audgrabhanas offered, then the sacrifice mounts it (the pan), and it bears the sacrifice: let him, therefore, put the fire-pan on the fire only after the sacrifice is complete, and the Audgrabhanas have been offered.

23. It is covered with a layer of Muñga grass, just for the purpose that it may blaze up. And as to why it is with a layer of Muñga grass, (it is done) to avoid injury, for that Muñga grass is a womb, and the womb does not injure the child; for he who is born, is born from a womb: 'May he (Agni), when he is born, be born from the womb,' thus he thinks.

24. Inside⁸ there is a layer of hemp, just for the purpose that it may blaze up. And as to its being a layer of hemp,--the inner membrane (amnion) of the womb from which Pragâpati was born consists of flax, and the outer membrane (chorion) of hemp: hence the latter is foul-smelling, for it is the outer membrane of the embryo. [It is so used] to avoid injury, for the outer membrane does not injure the embryo; and it is from the outer membrane of the embryo that he who is born is born: 'May he (Agni), when he is born, be born from the outer membrane of the embryo!' thus he thinks.

Second Brâhmana

1. Standing he puts it (the pan) on the fire, for the fire-pan is these worlds, and these worlds stand, as it were. And, moreover, whilst standing one is strongest.

2. Standing (with his face) towards north-east, for standing towards north-east Pragâpati created creatures.

3. And, again, why (he does so) standing towards north-east;--that (quarter), the north-east, is the quarter of both gods and men.

4. And, again, why standing towards north-east,--in that quarter is the gate of the world of heaven, hence it is standing with his face towards northeast that one offers libations, and standing towards north-east that one leads up the dakshinâs: it is by the gate that he thus makes him enter into the world of heaven.

5. [Vâg. S. XI, 68] 'Break not! Suffer not injury!'--as the text, so its meaning;--'O mother, bear up bravely!'--for the fire-pan (ukhâ, f.) is a woman; and 'O mother' is a term for addressing a woman: 'bear up well, indeed!'--(Thou) and Agni will do this (work)!'--for (the fire-pan) and Agni will indeed be doing this (sacred work).

6. [Vâg. S. XI, 69] 'Stand firm, divine Earth, for our well-being!' as the text, so its meaning;--'A divine (âsura) contrivance thou art made in the wonted manner;'--the vital spirit (asu) is the breath, and this (are-pan) has indeed been made its contrivance in the wonted manner;--'May this offering be agreeable to the gods!' he thereby means those libations which he intends to offer in that fire; and moreover, that (fire-pan) itself is an offering;--'unharmed rise thou in this sacrifice!' this he says with the view that it may rise unharmed, uninjured, in this sacrifice.

7. With two (verses) he heats it on the fire,--the Sacrificer is two-footed, and the Sacrificer is Agni: as great as Agni is, as great as is his measure, by so much he thus heats it (the pan). [He does so] with a gâyatrî and a trishtubh verse,--the Gâyatrî is the vital air, and the Trishtubh the body; and the animal is as much as the vital air and the body: thus by as much as the animal (consists of) he puts that (pan) on the fire. And, again, the Gâyatrî is Agni, and the Trishtubh is Indra; and the fire relates to Indra and Agni: as great as the fire is, as great as is its measure, by so much he thus heats it. These two (verses) have seven feet (viz. three and four respectively),--the fire-altar consists of seven layers⁹; seven seasons are a year, and Agni is the year: as great as Agni is, as great as is his measure, so great does this become.

8. When the fire heats it, then the flame mounts up to it; for the fire-pan is a female, and the fire is a male: hence when the male heats the female, he infuses seed into her.

9. Now, if the flame is too long in mounting up, some throw coals on (the pan), thinking, 'There is fire now on both sides.' But let him not do so; for the animal is indeed born with bones¹⁰; but it is not forced in with bones, as it were, at first; but it is introduced only as seed. Now that flame is boneless seed: hence the flame alone should mount up to it.

10. When the flame mounts up to it, he places a kindling-stick thereon: thereby the seed enters it (the fire-pan), and that fire imparts growth to that seed (in the shape of) this (kindling-stick).

11. It should be one of krimuka wood. Now, the gods and the Asuras, both of them sprung from Pragâpati, strove together. The gods, having placed Agni in front, went up to the Asuras. The Asuras cut off the point of that flame held forward. It settled down on this earth, and became that krimuka tree: hence it is sweet, for there is vital essence (in it). Hence also it is red, for it is a flame, that krimuka tree being the same as this Agni: it is (in the shape of) fire that he imparts growth to it.

12. It (the kindling-stick) is a span long, for Vishnu, as an embryo, was a span long: he thus imparts to it growth equal to his body.

13. It is soaked in ghee;--the inner membrane of the womb from which Agni was produced consisted of ghee: hence he now blazes up towards it, for it (the stick) is his self (body); and hence it (the krimuka) has no ashes: (Agni) himself now enters into his own self,--to avoid injury¹¹, for the inner membrane does not injure the embryo; and it is from the inner membrane that he who is born is born: 'When he (Agni) is born, may he be born from the inner membrane!' thus he thinks.

14. He puts it (the kindling-stick) on, with (Vâg. S. XI, 60; Rik S. II, 7, 6), 'The wood-eating, ghee-drinking,'--that is, he who has wood for his food, and ghee for his drink,--'the primeval, desirable Hotri,'--that is, 'the old, desirable Hotri;'--'the wonderful son of power,'--power is strength: thus, 'the wonderful son of strength.' Standing he puts it on with the 'Svâhâ:' the meaning of this (will be explained) hereafter¹².

15. Now the fire-pan is the body, the reed-grass (fuel) the womb, the hemp the inner membrane¹³, the ghee the outer membrane, and the kindling-stick the embryo.

16. The pan is outside, and the reed-grass (fuel) is inside; for the body is outside, and the womb inside. The reed-grass is outside, and the hemp inside; for the womb is outside, and the outer membrane is inside. The hemp is outside, and the ghee is inside; for the outer membrane is outside, and the inner membrane is inside. The ghee is outside, and the kindling-stick is inside; for the inner membrane is outside, and the embryo is inside. It is from these that he who is born is born, and from them he thus causes him (Agni) to be born.

Third Brâhmana

1. He then puts on a vikaṅkata (flacourtia sapida) one. When Pragâpati performed the first offering, a vikaṅkata tree sprang forth from that place where, after offering, he cleansed (his hands). That vikaṅkata, then, is that first offering; it is that he now offers on this (fire), and he therewith gratifies him (Agni). [Vâg. S. XI, 71; Rik S. VIII, 75, 15] 'From the far region come thou over to the near one: do thou protect that wherein I am!' as the text, so its meaning.

2. He then puts on an udumbara (ficus glomerata) one. The gods and the Asuras, both of them sprung from Pragâpati, strove together. Now all the trees sided with the Asuras, but the udumbara tree alone did not forsake the gods. The gods, having conquered the Asuras, took possession of their trees.

3. They said, 'Come, let us lay into the udumbara tree whatever pith, whatever vital sap there is in these trees: were they then to desert us, they would desert us worn out, like a milked-out cow, or like an ox that has been (tired out by) drawing (the cart).' Accordingly they laid into the udumbara tree what pith and essence there was in those trees; and on account of that pith it matures (fruit) equal to all the (other) trees¹⁴: hence that (tree) is always moist, always full of milky sap,--that udumbara tree, indeed, (being) all the trees, is all food: he thus gratifies him (Agni) by every kind of food, and kindles him by all trees (kinds of wood).

4. [Vâg. S. XI, 72] 'From the farthest distance,'--that is, '(from) what farthest distance there is;'--'O red-steeded, come hither!' for red, indeed, is Agni's horse;--'Purîshya, much-loved,'--that is, 'favourable to cattle, dear to many;'--'O Agni, overcome thou the scorners!' that is, 'O Agni, overcome all evil-doers!'

5. He then puts on one not cut by an axe,--that (Agni) is born when he is built up: it is for all (kinds of) food that he is born. Now that (wood) not cut by an axe is one kind of food (for the fire): it is thereby that he now gratifies him. [Vâg. S. XI, 73; Rik S. VIII, 102, 20] 'Whatsoever wood we lay upon thee, O Agni, let all that be ghee unto thee, do thou relish that, O youngest!' as the text, so its meaning: whatever (wood there is) not cut by the axe, that he makes palatable to him; and having made it food for him, he sets it before him.

6. He then puts on one that has lain on the ground,--he (Agni) is born when he is built up: it is for all (kinds of) food that he is born. Now that (wood) which has lain on the ground is one kind of food (for the fire): it is thereby he now gratifies him. [Vâg. S. XI, 74; Rik S. VIII, 102, 21] 'What the red ant eats, what the white ant crawls over,'--for either the red ant eats it, or the white ant crawls over it;--'let all that be ghee for thee, do thou relish that, O youngest!' as the text, so its meaning: whatever (wood) has lain on the ground, that he makes palatable for him; and having made it food for him, he sets it before him.

7. The remaining (kindling-sticks) are of palâsa wood (butea frondosa);--the Palâsa tree is the Brahman, it is by the Brahman he thus kindles him (Agni). And, again, why they are palâsa ones--;the Palâsa tree is Soma, and he, Soma, doubtless is the supreme offering: it is that he now offers on this (fire), and by that he gratifies him (Agni).

8. [He puts them on, with Vâg. S. XI, 75-82] 'Day by day bearing unremittingly,'--that is, 'Day by day bringing not unmindful;'--'food to him like unto a standing horse,'--that is, 'food as to a standing (resting) horse;'--'we, rejoicing in wealth-thrift and sap,'--that is, 'rejoicing in wealth, and thrift, and sap;'--'O Agni, let not us, thy associates, suffer injury!' this he says with a view that his (Agni's) associate (the Sacrificer) may not suffer injury.

9. 'While Agni is kindling on the earth's navel,'--that (place) where he is now being kindled is indeed the navel of the earth;--'we call for great wealth-thrift,'--that is, 'we call for wealth and great thrift;'--'Unto him, the draught-delighted,'--for he is indeed delighted (or, inebriated) by the draught,--'of high praise,'--for he is indeed highly praised;--'the adorable'--that is, 'worthy of adoration;'--'Agni, the conqueror, overpowering in battles;'--for Agni is indeed a conqueror, and overpowering in battles.

10. 'Whatever aggressive armies there are, onrushing with drawn-up lines; whatever thieves and robbers, those I cast into thy mouth, O Agni.'--'Devour thou in a lump the waylayers with thy two tusks, the thieves with thy teeth, and the robbers with thy jaws, O holy one!'--'What waylayers there are among men, what thieves and robbers in the wood, what miscreants in the lurking-places, I throw them into thy jaws.'--'Whatever man may plot against us, and whosoever may hate us, or abuse and seek to hurt us, every one of them burn thou to ashes!'

11. For the gods then made food of whosoever hated them, and of whomsoever they hated, and gave them up to him (Agni), and thereby gratified him; and this, then, became his food, and he burnt up the evil of the gods: and in like manner does the Sacrificer now make food of whosoever hates him, and of whomsoever he hates, and give them up to him (Agni), and thereby gratify him; and this, then, becomes his food, and he burns up the Sacrificer's evil.

12. These eleven (kindling-sticks) he puts on for one who is not either a noble, or a domestic chaplain (purohita); for incomplete are those eleven, and incomplete is he who is not either a noble, or a domestic priest.

13. Twelve (he puts on) for a noble or a domestic chaplain; for those twelve are a complete whole (or everything), and he who is either a noble or a domestic chaplain is everything.

14. In the case of a Purohita, he puts it on, with (Vâg. S. XI, 80, 'Perfected is my sanctity (brahman), perfected the vigour, the strength, perfected the victorious power (kshatra) whose Purohita I am!'--he thus perfects both his sanctity and power¹⁵.

15. And in the case of a nobleman, with (Vâg. S. XI, 82),'I have raised their arms, their lustre and strength: by the spiritual power I destroy the enemies, and elevate mine own (relatives)!' this he says with the view that he may destroy his enemies, and elevate his own relatives. Let him put on both these (kindling-sticks); for both the Brahman and the Kshatra are this Agni; and it is this Agni he thus kindles by those two, by the Brahman and the Kshatra.

16. These (kindling-sticks) amount to thirteen;--thirteen months are a year, and Agni is the year: as great as Agni is, as great as is his measure, by so much food he thus gratifies him.

17. They are a span long, for Vishnu, as an embryo, was a span long; and this is (Agni's or Vishnu's) food: he thus gratifies him with food proportionate to his own body. But the food which is proportionate to one's body satisfies, and does no injury; but what is too much that does injury, and what is too little that does not satisfy. Standing he puts them on--the significance of this (will be explained) further on;--and with the Svâhâ ('hail!'); for seed is infused here (in the sacrifice,--to wit,) this Agni; and were he to put on the logs unconsecrated by Svâhâ, he would injure him (Agni). Now inasmuch as they are kindling-sticks, they are not oblations; but inasmuch as (they are put on) with the Svâhâ, they are food, for the Svâhâ is food; and thus he does not injure him (Agni).

Fourth Brâhmana

1. Having then stridden the Vishnu strides, and reverentially stood by (the fire) with the Vâtsapra¹⁶ (hymn), after the sun has set, he in the first place throws out the ashes (from the fire-pan). For at that (former) time he regales him (Agni) with that food, those kindling-sticks; and the foul part of that eaten food sinks to the bottom as ashes. He now clears him thereof, and infuses speech into him¹⁷, thus freed from foulness. Having infused speech, he puts on a kindling-stick,--and thereby regales him with food for the night,--with, 'Night for night bearing unremittingly¹⁸'--the meaning of this has been told: he prays for that same security and wellbeing for the night; and whatsoever he puts on 'thereafter by night, that he puts on as a libation offered to him¹⁹.

2. And in the morning, when the sun has risen, he in the first place throws out the ashes. For at that (former) time he regales him with that food, that kindling-stick; and the foul part of that eaten food which he puts on during the night sinks to the bottom as ashes. He now clears him thereof, and infuses speech into him thus freed from foulness. Having infused speech, he puts on a kindling-stick,--and thereby regales him with food for the day--with, 'Day by day bearing unremittingly;'--the meaning of this has been told: he prays for that same security and well-being for the day; and whatsoever he puts on thereafter by day, that he puts on as a libation offered to him.

3. Verily, day and night passing on come up to a year, and the year is everything here: he prays for that security and well-being for a succession of days.

4. And when they give him (the Sacrificer) the fast-milk, he puts on a kindling-stick, after dipping it into the fast-milk. Some, however, say, 'Let him not dip it into the fast-milk: he would be offering a libation, and it would be improper were one who is initiated to offer a libation.'

5. Let him nevertheless dip it in, for that (Âhavanîya fire) is his (the Sacrificer's) divine body, and this (real body of his) is his human one. Now were he not to dip it in, he would not be satisfying that divine body of his; but when he clips it in, he does so satisfy that divine body. And in that it is a kindling-stick, it is not a libation; and in that it is dipped into the fast-milk, it is food, for the fast-milk is food.

6. And having put on the kindling-stick, he drinks the fast-milk; for that (fire) is his divine body, and this (body of his) is the human one; and the gods (come) first, and then men: hence he drinks the fast-milk after putting the kindling-stick on (the fire).

7. [He puts it on, with Vâg. S. XI, 83] 'O Lord of food; give us of thy food!'--that is, 'O Lord of viands, give us of thy viands!'--'of the pain-allaying, strengthening'--that is, 'of the hunger-allaying, strengthening (food),'--'Onward, onward lead thou the giver!'--the giver, doubtless, is the Sacrificer: thus, 'Onward lead thou the Sacrificer!'--'Give us sustenance for the two-footed and the four-footed!'--he thereby asks a blessing. Now as to the expiation in case of (the fire-pan being) broken which, he said, would be explained 'in a subsequent chapter²⁰.'

8. If the fire-pan were to break, let him pour that (fire in the pan) into any such unbroken, new pot with a wide mouth as there may be; for the pan which is broken indeed suffers injury, but uninjured is this deity (Agni): 'Uninjured I will bear him in the uninjured!' so he thinks. Into that (pot) he first throws a potsherd of the (broken) pan, and thus he (Agni) is not deprived of that womb of his.

9. He then takes the (remaining²¹) clay, and having pounded both the (broken) pan and that remainder, and mixed it, he makes a (new) pan in the very same way, without using any formula, quite silently. Having baked it, he pours (the fire) over. The expiation in this case is one of performance only. Having again thrown that potsherd into the (new) pan, and pounded both the (temporary) pan and the remaining clay, and mixed it, he lays it aside for expiation.

10. And if the fire in the pan (Ukhya Agni) were to go out, it is doubtless to the Gârhapatya that it goes, for from the Gârhapatya it has been taken. Having then taken it out of the Gârhapatya eastwards (to the place of the Âhavanîya), and put fuel on it, let him put the fire-pan on it in the same way (as before), without using any formula, quite silently. When the fire rises up to it,--

11. He performs two expiations. For it is for (the obtainment of) all his wishes that he makes up that (fire); and whatever part of his wishes is here cut off when the fire goes out, that he thereby joins together and heals. He performs both expiations, that of the (Soma) sacrifice and that of the fire-altar,--first that of the sacrifice, then that of the fire-altar: the significance of this has been explained²².

12. Having cut out with a kindling-stick some of the butter, he offers sitting a libation, with (Vâg;. S. XII, 4,), 'To Visvakarman, hail!' Then stepping near he puts the kindling-stick on the fire, with (Vâg. S. XII, 44), 'Again the Âdityas, the Rudras, the Vasus may kindle thee, again the Brahmans with sacrifices, O bringer of good things!'--that is, 'May those deities again kindle thee!'--'With ghee make thou grow thy body, let the wishes of the Sacrificer be true!'--that is, 'With ghee indeed make thou grow thy body, and for whatever wishes the Sacrificer makes up a fire, may they all come true!'

13. And if the Gârhapatya fire were to go out, it is doubtless to the churning-sticks that it goes, for from the churning-sticks it has been taken. Having churned it out with the churning-sticks, and put fuel on it, he performs two expiations.

14. And if the Âhavanîya fire were to go out whilst the pressing (of Soma) proceeds, it is doubtless to the Gârhapatya that it goes, for from the Gârhapatya it has been taken. Having taken it straightway eastward from the Gârhapatya, and put fuel on it, he performs two expiations: whatever (kind of Soma) sacrifice may be (performed) at the time, the expiation of that sacrifice he should perform; and of like kind is the expiation of the fire-altar.

15. And if the Âgnîdhrîya fire were to go out, it is doubtless to the Gârhapatya that it goes, for from the Gârhapatya it has been taken. Having taken it from the Gârhapatya eastward along the north of the Sadas, and put fuel on it, he performs two expiations. And if the Gârhapatya were to go out, the meaning (procedure) of that has been explained.

Footnotes

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